Monolithic Ceramic End Mill

ABSTRACT

End mills are disclosed which may be made monolithically of ceramic or other materials. The cutting portions of the end mills have lengths of cut that are no more than twice their cutting diameters and cores which are at least 0.7 times their cutting diameters. Their axial blades have cutting edges with negative radial rake and are separated by helical flutes. Their cutting ends have negative axial rake and are gashed ahead of center and have radial cutting edges with negative rake. Such end mills also have radiused corners and gashes transitioning from radial to axial at a flute. Methods of milling materials using such ceramic end mills are also disclosed.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to monolithic end mills which may be made of ceramic and to methods of machining using such end mills.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

End mills are rotary tools that are used for machining many types of materials, from metals to plastics. They are supported by a shank which is generally cylindrical and adapted to be removably gripped by a motor driven chuck or functionally similar device. The shank graduates into a cutting portion on a single end end mill or into two cutting portions on a double end end mill. The cutting portion extends to an end of the end mill. The cutting portion has a plurality of cutting blades which are separated by flutes for carrying away the chips which are generated by the cutting operation. The cutting blades and the flutes may be parallel to the end mill's longitudinal axis, but more often are helical. The cutting portion typically terminates with radial cutting features designed to complement the cutting action provided by the axial portions of the cutting blades.

Until now, nearly all end mills have been made from impact resistant materials such as high speed steels and ceramic-metal composites, e.g., cemented tungsten carbide. To the extent that ceramics have been used, due to their brittleness, they usually have been restricted to being employed as cutting edge inserts that are removably fixed to a body made of a more impact resistant material, e.g., a high speed steel. Rarely is a machining tool, such as an end mill, that may be subjected to side loading made monolithically from a ceramic material.

Nonetheless, ceramic materials are attractive in cutting operations because they can withstand the high temperatures generated in the cutting zone during the cutting operation much better than metals and even cemented tungsten carbides. High cutting temperatures are beneficial because they can cause the material that is being cut to flow more easily thus increasing metal removal rates and lowering the amount of force required to cut the material. What is needed is a monolithic end mill having a design that can take advantage of the benefits of ceramics while minimizing the problems caused by their inherent brittleness.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention provides end mills which may be made monolithically of ceramic. Such end mills may be made as single end or as dual end end mills. The cutting portions of the end mills according to the present invention have lengths of cut that are no more than twice their cutting diameters and cores which are at least 0.7 times their cutting diameters. Their axial blades have cutting edges with negative radial rake and are separated by helical flutes. Their cutting ends have negative axial rake and are gashed ahead of center and have radial cutting edges with negative rake. Such end mills also have radiused corners and gashes transitioning from radial to axial at a flute.

The present invention includes such end mills made monolithically from ceramic and other materials. The present invention also includes methods of milling materials using such ceramic end mills. In some preferred embodiments of the present invention the end mills are made of a SiAlON ceramic.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The criticality of the features and merits of the present invention will be better understood by reference to the attached drawings. It is to be understood, however, that the drawings are designed for the purpose of illustration only and not as definitions of the limits of the present invention.

FIG. 1A is a plan view of an end mill having four flutes according to an embodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 1B is a plan view of an end mill having six flutes according to an embodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 2A is an end view taken at the plane IIIA-IIIA in FIG. 1A.

FIG. 2B is an end view taken at the plane 111B-IIIB in FIG. 1B.

FIG. 3 is a partial end view showing Detail A of FIG. 2A in more detail.

FIG. 4A is an end view of the cutting end of the end mill of FIG. 1A.

FIG. 4B is an end view of the cutting end of the end mill of FIG. 1B.

FIG. 5 is a plan view near the cutting end of the end mill of FIG. 1A illustrating a detail of one of the blades.

FIG. 6 is a perspective view of a portion of the cutting end of the end mill of FIG. 1A.

FIG. 7 is a perspective view of a portion of the cutting end of the end mill of FIG. 1A.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS OF THE INVENTION

In this section, some preferred embodiments of the present invention are described in detail sufficient for one skilled in the art to practice the present invention. It is to be understood, however, that the fact that a limited number of preferred embodiments are described herein does not in any way limit the scope of the present invention as set forth in the appended claims.

Whenever the term “about” is used herein or in the appended claims to modify the dimensions of a feature of an embodiment of the present invention, it is to be construed as referring to the machining tolerances related to the making of the relevant feature. Whenever a range is used herein or in the appended claims to describe the dimensions of a feature of an embodiment of the present invention, the range is to be construed as including the stated end points of the range and every point therebetween.

FIGS. 1A and 1B show side views of embodiments of monolithic end mills 2, 4 according to the present invention having four and six flutes, respectively. Referring to FIG. 1A, end mill 2 has a cutting portion 6 a extending from a shank portion 8 a. The cutting portion 6 a has a cutting diameter 10 a and an axial length of cut 12 a that is no more that about twice the cutting diameter 10 a. Note that although the shank diameter 14 a in this embodiment is substantially the same as the cutting diameter 10 a, it is within the contemplation of the present invention that these diameters may be substantially different. When differing shank and cutting diameters are used, it is preferred that stress concentration features, such as sharp corners, be avoided in the transition zone between the two diameters.

Referring now to FIG. 1B, end mill 4 has a plurality of blades, e.g., blades 16 b, 18 b disposed at a helical angle 20 b from the longitudinal axis 22 b of the end mill 6 and defining the cutting diameter 10 b. Adjacent blades, e.g., blades 16 b, 18 b, are separated by a flute, e.g., flute 24 b. The blades extend along the axial length of cut 12 b and onto the cutting end 25 b of the end mill 4.

FIGS. 2A and 2B show end views of end mills 2, 4 taken at cutting planes IIIA-IIIA and IIIB-IIIB, respectively. These drawings more clearly show the separations of adjacent blades, e.g. blades 16 a, 18 a, by flutes, e.g., flute 24 a. The core diameters 26 a, 26 b, respectively of end mills 2, 4, are no more than 0.7 times their respective cutting diameters 10 a, 10 b. Preferably, the core diameter 26 a is about 0.715 times the cutting diameter 10 a of end mill 2 and the core diameter 26 b is about 0.75 times the cutting diameter 10 b of end mill 4.

FIG. 3 shows a portion of the representative blade 16 a of end mill 2 in more detail. The blade 16 a has a negative radial rake angle 28 a measured on its flank or face 30 a with respect to radius 32. The blade 16 a has a cutting edge 34 a at the intersection of its flank 30 a and its radial primary land 36 a. The radial primary land 36 a is preferably disposed to form a radial primary relief angle 38 a with respect to a tangent 40 taken at the cutting edge 34 a. The blade 16 a is also preferably provided with a radial secondary relief angle 42 a with respect to tangent 40 trailing the axial primary land 36 a.

FIGS. 4A and 4B show the cutting ends 25 a, 25 b of end mills 2, 4, respectively. Referring to FIG. 4A, it can be seen that the blades of the end mill 2, e.g., blade 16 a, extend onto the cutting end 25 a at a negative radial angle or endrake 44 a with respect to radius 46 a and terminate proximate to a web 48 a. Similarly, referring to FIG. 4B, it can be seen that the blades of the end mill 4, e.g., blade 16 b, extend onto the cutting end 25 b at negative radial angle or endrake 44 b with respect to radius 46 b and terminate proximate to a web 48 b.

Referring now to FIG. 5, there is shown a plan view of a portion of blade 16 a proximate the cutting end 25 a of end mill 2. The blade 16 a has a negative axial rake angle 50 a measured with respect to a plane 54 a containing the longitudinal axis 22 a of the end mill 2. FIG. 5 also illustrates the fact that the cutting end 25 a has a dish angle 52 a with respect to the plane 54 a which is perpendicular to the longitudinal axis 22 a and tangent to the cutting end 25 a. The gash 56 a adjacent to the blade 16 a is also illustrated in this drawing. The blade 16 a also has an axial primary land 62 a disposed at an axial primary relief angle 64 a from the tangent plane 54 a and an axial secondary relief angle 66 a with respect to the tangent plane 54 a trailing the axial primary land 62 a.

FIG. 6 presents another view of a portion of the blade 16 a shown in FIG. 5. It can be seen here how the gash 56 a preferably spirally blends from radial to axial as it transitions into flute 24 a. As can be seen in FIG. 7, the gash 56 a is disposed at a gash angle 58 a from the cutting end tangent plane 54 a.

Referring again to FIGS. 1A and 1B, it can be seen that the blades of the end mills 2, 4 have radiused corners, e.g. corners 60 a, 60 b, at their transitions onto the cutting ends 25 a, 25 b.

In preferred embodiments, the features identified above of the end mills of the present invention are within the following dimensional ranges: (a) the length of cut is less than twice the cutting diameter, and more preferably in the range of from about one to two times the cutting diameter; (b) the core diameter is at least 0.7 times the cutting diameter; (c) the helical angle at which the blades are disposed to the longitudinal axis is in the range of from about 39 to about 41 degrees; (d) the number of blades or of flutes is in the range of from three to eight; (e) the endrake is in the range of from about −1 to about −6 degrees; (f) the corner radius is in the range of about 0.031 to about 0.4 times the cutting diameter, and more preferably in the range of about 0.063 to about 0.25 times the cutting diameter; (g) the radial rake is in the range of about 0 to about −4 tangential degrees; (h) the axial rake is in the range of about −1 to about −3 degrees; (i) the dish angle is in the range of from about 1.5 to about 3 degrees; and (j) the gash angle is in the range of from about 15 to about 30 degrees. It is also preferred that the cutting diameter remain constant along the length of cut, but it is also within the contemplation of the present invention for there to be positive or negative taper along the length of cut. Although the cutting diameter may have any value, preferred embodiments of the present invention have cutting diameters in the range of from about 2 to about 20 millimeters, and even more preferred embodiments have cutting diameters in the range of from about 4 to about 16 millimeters. It is also preferred that the core diameter increase as the number of blades increases.

Although the end mills of the present invention may be made of any conventional end mill material, e.g., high speed steels or cemented tungsten carbides, it is preferred to make them from a ceramic material. Examples of such ceramic materials include alumina reinforced with silicon carbide whiskers, alumina titanium carbonitrides, stabilized zirconia, silicon carbide, and silicon nitride-based ceramics. More preferably, the ceramic is a silicon aluminum oxynitride (SiAlON) ceramic. Preferred SiAlON ceramics comprise, in weight percent, 2 to 20% aluminum, 1 to 12% oxygen, 2 to 12% total of one or more rare earth elements, a balance of silicon and nitrogen, and have up to 50% alpha phase. Examples of such preferred SiAlON ceramics comprise, in weight percent, 3 to 7% aluminum, 1 to 4% oxygen, 3 to 8% ytterbium, up to 1% lanthanum, and a balance of silicon and nitrogen, and have 20 to 45% alpha phase. Among the more preferred SiAlON ceramics are the following grades which are commercially available from Kennametal Inc., of Latrobe, Pa., US: KY1540™ SiAlON which comprises, in weight percent, 6.5% aluminum, 3.7% oxygen, 7.2% ytterbium, and a balance of silicon and nitrogen, and has between 25 and 40% alpha phase; KYS30™ SiAlON which comprises, in weight percent, 6.8% aluminum, 3.5% oxygen, 5.5% ytterbium, 0.7% lanthanum, and a balance of silicon and nitrogen, and has between 23 and 35% alpha phase; and SP1300™ SiAlON which comprises, in weight percent, 3.9% aluminum, 1.7% oxygen, 4.0% ytterbium, 0.5% lanthanum, and a balance of silicon and nitrogen, and has between 25 and 45% alpha phase. For cutting speeds which are less than 600 meters/minute, it is preferred that the SiAlON ceramic comprises, in weight percent, no more than 5% aluminum, no more than 2% oxygen, no more than 5% ytterbium, more than 0.3% lanthanum, and a balance of silicon and nitrogen, and have 20 to 45% alpha phase. For cutting speeds which are equal to or greater than 600 meters/minute, it is preferred that the SiAlON ceramic comprise, in weight percent, at least 5% aluminum, at least 2% oxygen, at least 5% ytterbium, at least 0.8% lanthanum, and a balance of silicon and nitrogen, and has 25 to 45% alpha phase.

When the end mills of the present invention are constructed from conventional end mill materials, conventional processes for producing an end mill starting blank may be used followed by conventional machining and finishing techniques to produce the end mill. When the end mills of the present invention are constructed from a ceramic, it is preferred that the starting blank be produced by pressing and sintering the appropriate precursor particulate materials followed by centerless grinding to form a starting blank. The pressing and sintering may include such substeps as hot or cold uniaxial pressing and hot or cold isostatic pressing. The ceramic blanks may then be processed using conventional machining and finishing techniques taking into consideration the properties of the ceramic material involved. Preferably, the end mills are lightly honed using a high pressure abrasive particle-bearing liquid medium to remove particles from the cutting edges while avoiding the formation of microfractures.

EXAMPLES Examples 1-4

End mills Examples 1-4 according to embodiments of the present invention were machined from SiAlON to have the features described in Table 1.

TABLE 1 Feature Example 1 Example 2 Example 3 Example 4 Overall length (mm) 62.00 62.00 62.00 62.00 Shank diameter (mm) 8.00 12.00 8.00 12.00 Cutting diameter (mm) 8.00 12.00 8.00 12.00 Core diameter (mm) 5.74 8.59 5.99 9.02 Cutting length (mm) 4.01 5.99 4.01 5.99 Number of flutes 4 4 6 6 Corner radius (mm) 1.00 1.50 1.00 1.50 Helical angle (degrees) 40 40 40 40 Radial rake (tangential −2 −2 −2 −2 degrees) Radial primary land 0.33 0.48 0.33 0.48 (mm) Radial primary relief 8 8 8 8 angle (degrees) Radial secondary relief 18 18 18 18 angle (degrees) Axial rake (degrees) 2 2 2 2 Axial primary land (mm) 0.48 0.71 0.48 0.71 Axial primary relief 8 8 8 8 angle (degrees) Axial secondary relief 18 18 18 18 angle (degrees) Gash angle (degrees) 27 27 18 18 Endrake (degrees) 5 5 2 2 Web thickness 0.69 1.04 0.28 0.41 (millimeters) Dish angle (degrees) 2.5 2.5 2 2

Example 5

An end mill according to the present invention having the dimensions of Example 3 was made from KYS30™ SiAlON and used to cut Inconel 718 without coolant at a high cutting speed of 720 meters/minute and a metal removal rate of about 14,500 mm³/minute. The end mill was examined and found to have little chipping or metal buildup and had not reached its end of life. The radial facet wear was measured to be 0.4 mm.

Examples 6-8

End mills according to the present invention having the dimensions of Examples 1 and 3 were made from KY1540™ SiAlON (Example 6), KYS30™ SiAlON (Example 7), and SP1300™ SiAlON (Example 8). Each was used to cut Inconel 718 at a low cutting speed of 300 meters/minute without a coolant at a metal removal rate of 5,150 mm³/minute. After removing 2400 cubic millimeters of metal from the workpiece, each tool was examined and found to have little chipping or metal buildup and none had reached its end of life. The facet wear was measured to be 0.16 mm for Example 8 (SP1300™ SiAlON), 0.30 mm for Example 6 (KY1540™ SiAlON), and 0.40 mm for Example 7 (KYS30™ SiAlON).

These results were surprising because one would not have expected the SiAlON end mills that work well at high cutting speeds (as evidenced by Example 5) where chipping is the dominant factor in cutting life to also work well at low cutting speeds (as evidenced by Examples 6-8) where wear is the dominant factor. Furthermore, in view of the results, it is preferred that SiAlON materials similar to SP1300 be used for cutting at low speeds, i.e, below 600 meters/minute, and those similar to KY1540 and KYS30 be used for high cutting speeds, i.e., at or greater than 600 meters/minute.

While only a few embodiments of the present invention have been shown and described, it will be obvious to those skilled in the art that many changes and modifications may be made thereunto without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention as described in the following claims. All patent applications, patents, and all other publications referenced herein are incorporated herein in their entireties to the full extent permitted by law. 

1. A monolithic end mill having a longitudinal axis, the end mill comprising: a shank portion extending along the longitudinal axis; and at least one cutting portion extending from the shank portion and including a cutting tip having a web, the cutting portion having a cutting diameter, an axial length of cut that is no more than twice the cutting diameter, a core diameter that is at least 0.7 times the cutting diameter, and a plurality of blades disposed at a helical angle from the longitudinal axis along the axial length of cut and extending at a radial angle onto the cutting tip to form a negative endrake and terminating proximate to the web; wherein each of the blades of the plurality of blades is separated from one another by a flute and has a corner radius, a negative radial rake, and a negative axial rake; and wherein the cutting tip has a dish angle and a plurality of gashes, each of the gashes of the plurality of gashes having a gash angle and extending into one of the flutes.
 2. The monolithic end mill of claim 1, wherein the end mill is constructed from a ceramic.
 3. The monolithic end mill of claim 1, wherein the end mill is constructed from a material selected from the group consisting of alumina reinforced with silicon carbide whiskers, alumina titanium carbonitrides, stabilized zirconia, silicon carbide, and silicon nitride-based ceramics.
 4. The monolithic end mill of claim 1, wherein the end mill is constructed from a SiAlON ceramic.
 5. The monolithic end mill of claim 1, wherein the end mill is constructed from a SiAlON ceramic comprising 2 to 20% aluminum, 1 to 12% oxygen, 2 to 12% total of one or more rare earth elements, a balance of silicon and nitrogen, and having up to 50% alpha phase.
 6. The monolithic end mill of claim 1, wherein the end mill is constructed from a SiAlON ceramic comprising, in weight percent, 3 to 7% aluminum, 1 to 4% oxygen, 3 to 8% ytterbium, up to 1% lanthanum, and a balance of silicon and nitrogen, and having 20 to 45% alpha phase.
 7. The monolithic end mill of claim 1, wherein the helical angle is in the range of from about 39 to about 41 degrees.
 8. The monolithic end mill of claim 1, wherein the radial rake is in the range of from about 0 to about −4 tangential degrees.
 9. The monolithic end mill of claim 1, wherein the axial rake is in the range of from about −1 to about −3 degrees.
 10. The monolithic end mill of claim 1, wherein the corner radius is in the range of from about 0.031 to about 0.4 times the cutting diameter.
 11. The monolithic end mill of claim 1, wherein the endrake is in the range of from about −1 to about −6 degrees.
 12. The monolithic end mill of claim 1, wherein the gash angle is in the range of from about 15 to about 30 degrees.
 13. The monolithic end mill of claim 1, wherein the dish angle is in the range of from about 1.5 to about 3 degrees.
 14. The monolithic end mill of claim 1, wherein the number of flutes is in the range of from 3 to
 8. 15. The monolithic end mill of claim 1, wherein the number of cutting portions is two.
 16. The monolithic end mill of claim 1, wherein the axial length of cut is in the range of from about one to about two times the cutting diameter.
 17. The monolithic end mill of claim 1, wherein the cutting diameter is in the range of from about 2 to about 20 millimeters.
 18. A monolithic end mill having a longitudinal axis, the end mill comprising: a shank portion extending along the longitudinal axis; and at least one cutting portion extending from the shank portion and including a cutting tip having a web, the cutting portion having a cutting diameter, an axial length of cut that is no more than twice the cutting diameter, a core diameter that is at least 0.7 times the cutting diameter, and a plurality of blades disposed at a helical angle from the longitudinal axis of from about 39 to about 41 degrees along the axial length of cut and extending at a radial angle onto the cutting tip to form an endrake in the range of from about −1 to about −6 degrees and terminating proximate to the web; wherein each of the blades of the plurality of blades is separated from one another by a flute and has a corner radius in the range of from about 0.031 to about 0.4 times the cutting diameter, a negative radial rake in the range of from about 0 to about −4 tangential degrees, and a negative axial rake in the range of about −1 to about −3 degrees; and wherein the cutting tip has a dish angle in the range of from about 1.5 to about 3 degrees and a plurality of gashes, each of the gashes of the plurality of gashes having a gash angle in the range of from about 15 to about 30 degrees and extending into one of the flutes.
 19. The monolithic end mill of claim 18, wherein the end mill is constructed from a ceramic.
 20. The monolithic end mill of claim 18, wherein the end mill is constructed from a material selected from the group consisting of alumina reinforced with silicon carbide whiskers, alumina titanium carbonitrides, stabilized zirconia, silicon carbide, and silicon nitride-based ceramics.
 21. The monolithic end mill of claim 18, wherein the end mill is constructed from a SiAlON ceramic.
 22. The monolithic end mill of claim 18, wherein the end mill is constructed from a SiAlON ceramic comprising, in weight percent, 2 to 20% aluminum, 1 to 12% oxygen, 2 to 12% total of one or more rare earth elements, a balance of silicon and nitrogen, and having up to 50% alpha phase.
 23. The monolithic end mill of claim 18, wherein the end mill is constructed from a SiAlON ceramic comprising, in weight percent, 3 to 7% aluminum, 1 to 4% oxygen, 3 to 8% ytterbium, up to 1% lanthanum, and a balance of silicon and nitrogen, and having 20 to 45% alpha phase.
 24. The monolithic end mill of claim 18, wherein the number of flutes is in the range of from three to eight.
 25. The monolithic end mill of claim 18, wherein the number of cutting portions is two.
 26. The monolithic end mill of claim 18, wherein the axial length of cut is in the range of from about one to about two times the cutting diameter.
 27. The monolithic end mill of claim 18, wherein the cutting diameter is in the range of from about 2 to about 20 mm.
 28. A method of machining an object comprising contacting the object with an end mill having a longitudinal axis, the end mill spinning at a preselected cutting speed around its longitudinal axis while the end mill is in contact with the object, the end mill including a shank portion extending along the longitudinal axis; and at least one cutting portion extending from the shank portion and including a cutting tip having a web, the cutting portion having a cutting diameter, an axial length of cut that is no more than twice the cutting diameter, a core diameter that is at least 0.7 times the cutting diameter, and a plurality of blades disposed at a helical angle from the longitudinal axis along the axial length of cut and extending at a radial angle onto the cutting tip to form a negative endrake and terminating proximate to the web; wherein each of the blades of the plurality of blades is separated from one another by a flute and has a corner radius, a negative radial rake, and a negative axial rake; and wherein the cutting tip has a dish angle and a plurality of gashes, each of the gashes of the plurality of gashes having a gash angle and extending into one of the flutes.
 29. The method of claim 28, wherein the end mill is constructed from a ceramic.
 30. The method of claim 28, wherein the end mill is constructed from a material selected from the group consisting of alumina reinforced with silicon carbide whiskers, alumina titanium carbonitrides, stabilized zirconia, silicon carbide, and silicon nitride-based ceramics.
 31. The method of claim 28, wherein the end mill is constructed from a SiAlON ceramic.
 32. The method of claim 28, wherein the end mill is constructed from a SiAlON ceramic comprising in weight percent, 2 to 20% aluminum, 1 to 12% oxygen, 2 to 12% total of one or more rare earth elements, a balance of silicon and nitrogen, and having up to 50% alpha phase.
 33. The method of claim 28, wherein the end mill is constructed from a SiAlON ceramic comprising, in weight percent, 3 to 7% aluminum, 1 to 4% oxygen, 3 to 8% ytterbium, up to 1% lanthanum, and a balance of silicon and nitrogen, and having 20 to 45% alpha phase.
 34. The method of claim 28, wherein the cutting speed is less than 600 meters per minute, and the end mill is constructed of a SiAlON ceramic comprising, in weight percent, no more than 5% aluminum, no more than 2% oxygen, no more than 5% ytterbium, more than 0.3% lanthanum, and a balance of silicon and nitrogen, and have 20 to 45% alpha phase.
 35. The method of claim 28, wherein the cutting speed is 600 meters per minute or greater, and the end mill is constructed of a SiAlON ceramic comprising, in weight percent, at least 5% aluminum, at least 2% oxygen, at least 5% ytterbium, at least 0.8% lanthanum, and a balance of silicon and nitrogen, and has 25 to 45% alpha phase.
 36. The method of claim 28, wherein the helical angle is in the range of from about 39 to about 41 degrees.
 37. The method of claim 28, wherein the radial rake is in the range of from about 0 to about −4 tangential degrees.
 38. The method of claim 28, wherein the axial rake is in the range of from about −1 to about −3 degrees.
 39. The method of claim 28, wherein the corner radius is in the range of from about 0.031 to about 0.4 times the cutting diameter.
 40. The method of claim 28, wherein the endrake is in the range of from about −1 to about −6 degrees.
 41. The method of claim 28, wherein the gash angle is in the range of from about 15 to about 30 degrees.
 42. The method of claim 28, wherein the dish angle is in the range of from about 1.5 to about 3 degrees.
 43. The method of claim 28, wherein the number of flutes is in the range of from 3 to
 8. 44. The method of claim 28, wherein the number of cutting portions is two.
 45. The method of claim 28, wherein the axial length of cut is in the range of from about one to about two times the cutting diameter.
 46. The method of claim 28, wherein the cutting diameter is in the range of from about 2 to about 20 millimeters.
 47. A method of machining an object comprising contacting the object with an end mill having a longitudinal axis, the end mill spinning at a preselected cutting speed around its longitudinal axis while the end mill is in contact with the object, the end mill including at least one cutting portion extending from the shank portion and including a cutting tip having a web, the cutting portion having a cutting diameter, an axial length of cut that is no more than twice the cutting diameter, a core diameter that is at least 0.7 times the cutting diameter, and a plurality of blades disposed at a helical angle from the longitudinal axis of from about 39 to about 41 degrees along the axial length of cut and extending at a radial angle onto the cutting tip to form an endrake in the range of from about −1 to about −6 degrees and terminating proximate to the web; wherein each of the blades of the plurality of blades is separated from one another by a flute and has a corner radius in the range of from about 0.031 to about 0.4 times the cutting diameter, a negative radial rake in the range of from about 0 to about −4 tangential degrees, and a negative axial rake in the range of about −1 to about −3 degrees; and wherein the cutting tip has a dish angle in the range of from about 1.5 to about 3 degrees and a plurality of gashes, each of the gashes of the plurality of gashes having a gash angle in the range of from about 15 to about 30 degrees and extending into one of the flutes.
 48. The method of claim 47, wherein the end mill is constructed from a ceramic.
 49. The method of claim 47, wherein the end mill is constructed from a material selected from the group consisting of alumina reinforced with silicon carbide whiskers, alumina titanium carbonitrides, stabilized zirconia, silicon carbide, and silicon nitride-based ceramics.
 50. The method of claim 47, wherein the end mill is constructed from a SiAlON ceramic.
 51. The method of claim 47, wherein the end mill is constructed from a SiAlON ceramic comprising, in weight percent, 2 to 20% aluminum, 1 to 12% oxygen, 2 to 12% total of one or more rare earth elements, a balance of silicon and nitrogen, and having up to 50% alpha phase.
 52. The method of claim 47, wherein the end mill is constructed from a SiAlON ceramic comprising, in weight percent, 3 to 7% aluminum, 1 to 4% oxygen, 3 to 8% ytterbium, up to 1% lanthanum, and a balance of silicon and nitrogen, and having 20 to 45% alpha phase.
 53. The method of claim 47, wherein the cutting speed is less than 600 meters per minute, and the end mill is constructed of a SiAlON ceramic comprising, in weight percent, no more than 5% aluminum, no more than 2% oxygen, no more than 5% ytterbium, more than 0.3% lanthanum, and a balance of silicon and nitrogen, and have 20 to 45% alpha phase.
 54. The method of claim 47, wherein the cutting speed is 600 meters per minute or greater, and the end mill is constructed of a SiAlON ceramic comprising, in weight percent, at least 5% aluminum, at least 2% oxygen, at least 5% ytterbium, at least 0.8% lanthanum, and a balance of silicon and nitrogen, and has 25 to 45% alpha phase.
 55. The method of claim 47, wherein the number of flutes is in the range of between 3 and
 8. 56. The method of claim 47, wherein the number of cutting portions is two.
 57. The method of claim 47, wherein the axial length of cut is in the range of from about one to about two times the cutting diameter.
 58. The method of claim 47, wherein the cutting diameter is in the range of from about 2 to about 20 mm. 